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《认知语言学入门(第2版)》是继《认知语言学入门》一版而出。《认知语言学入门》一版于1996年问世,成为当时国内外一本认知语言学教科书。在书中,两位作者细致入微地阐释了认知语言学的核心概念,同时,又探讨了在诸如象似性、词汇变化、语法化和语言教学等研究中引入认知概念的种种益处。
内容简介
《认知语言学入门》一版于1996年问世,成为当时国内外一本认知语言学教科书。在书中,两位作者细致入微地阐释了认知语言学的核心概念,同时,又探讨了在诸如象似性、词汇变化、语法化和语言教学等研究中引入认知概念的种种益处。
此次第二版增加了构式语法理论、概念合成理论、关联理论等内容,并对原来的内容进行了修订,从而更全面地反映认知语言学研究近年的新成果,更好地适应不同读者的需求,是语言学界不可多得的一本内容广泛的认知语言学教科书。
内页插图
目录
Publishers acknowledgements
Preface to the second edition
Typographical conventions
Introduction
1 Prototypes and categories
1.1 Colours,squares,birds and cups:early empirical research
into lexical categories
1.2 The internal structure of categories:prototypes,attributes,
family resemblances and gestalt
1.3 Context·dependence and cultural models
2 Levels of categorization
2.1 Basic level categories of organisms and concrete objects
2.2 Superordinate and subordinate categories
2.3 Conceptual hierarchies
2.4 Categorization and composite word forms
2.5 Basic level categories and basic experiences:actions,
events,properties,states and locations
3 Conceptual metaphors and metonymies
3.1 Metaphors and metonymies:from figures of speech to
conceptual systems
3.2 Metaphors,metonymies and the structure of emotion
categories
3.3 Metaphors as a way of thinking:examples from science
and politics
3.4 Thinking in metonymies:potential and limitations
4 Figure and ground
4.1 Figure and ground,trajector and landmark:
early research into prepositions
4.2 Figure,ground and two metaphors:a cognitive
explanation of simple clause patterns
4.3 Other types of prominence and cognitive processing
5 Frames and cOnstructions
5.1 Frames and scripts
5.2 Event-frames and the windowing of attention
5.3 Language-specific framing and its use in narrative texts
5.4 Construction Grammar
6 Blending and relevance
6.1 Metaphor,metonymy and conceptual blending
6.2 Conceptual blending in linguistic analysis and description
6.3 Conceptual blending in advertising texts,riddles and iokes
6.4 Relevance:a cognitive·pragmatic phenomenon
7 Other issues in cognitive linguistics
7.1 lconicity
7.2 Lexical change and prototypicality
7.3 Cognitive aspects of grammaticalization
7.4 Effects on foreign language teaching
Conclusion
精彩书摘
For obvious reasons, the discrepancy between the saentifically founded models of experts and the naive models of laypersons is particularly notice-able in scientific and technical domains. Consider for example the case of the naive model of the physical phenomenon of motion. McCloskey (1983) carried out experiments and interviews to elicit the cultural model of motion prevalent in America. He asked his informants to imagine an airplane flying at constant speed and altitude. In addition, the informants should assume that at one point during the journey a large metal ball is dropped from the plane, which continues flying at the same speed and altitude and in the same direction. The task was to draw the path the ball will follow until it hits the ground, ignoring wind and air resistance. Its final position in relation to the plane should also be indicated. Before you read on, you should perhaps try to solve the task yourself, i.e. make your own'drawing of the paths followed by the plane and the metal ball.
Now compare your drawing with the scientifically correct answer to the problem. As physicists tell us, the ball will fall in a kind of parabolic arc and hit the ground directly below the point the plane has reached in the meantime. The ball will take this kind of path because it will continue to travel horizontally at the same speed as the plane while acquiring constantly increasing vertical velocity.
If your drawing does not agree with the scientific explanation, you are in good company, with 60 per cent of the informants, because no more than 40 per cent of McCloskey's informants gave the scientifically correct response. The majority of the subjects thought that the ball would take a different course (for instance that it would drop in a straight line or would fall in a diagonal), revealing a 'naive' cultural model of motion that differs from the expert model current in physics.
What this experiment shows is that the cultural models held by the majority of the people need not be, and often are not, in line with the objectively verifiable, scientific knowledge available to experts. If we consider that cul- tural models are based on the collective experience of a society or social group this does not come as a surprise. To get through everyday life, laypersons do not need scientifically correct models, but functionally effective ones. This means that as long as a model is in line with what we perceive and enables us to make functionally correct predictions, it can have widespread currency although it may be technically inaccurate.
Another illuminating example is provided by Kempton (1987). When she studied the American cultural model of home heat controls or thermostats by means of interviews and behavioural records, she found two competing theories.
One, the feedback theory, holds that the thermostat senses temperature and turns the furnace on and off to maintain an even temperature. The other, which I call the valve theory, holds that the thermostat controls the amount of heat. That is, like a gas burner or a water valve, a higher setting causes a higher rate of flow.
(Kempton 1987: 224)
The feedback theory is technically correct, while the valve theory is wrong. What is of special interest about the two theories is that even though the valve theory is wrong, it also enables us to make the right predictions for the control of temperature in a house and therefore there is no reason why laypersons should not espouse it.
It seems, then, that many naive cultural models, espeaally in the sclen- tific and technological domain, are inaccurate from a scientific point of view, but usually correct as far as their functional predictions are concerned. In other domains of everyday life the question of the accuracy of a model does not seem to be as relevant. For example, for the cultural models of SANDCASTLE, BEACH, DESKS arid BREAKFAST which have been singled out in this section for illustrative purposes, it would not be appropriate to speak of correct or inaccurate models, although experts with particularly refined cognitive models could certainly
be found for all spheres. What counts is that 'ordinary' everyday experiences do not follow the doctrines laid down for scientific research and the rules of
formallogic, but have other, more genuinely cognitive, principles behind them, some of which will be discussed below in Chapters 3 and 4.
To conclude this section, here is a summary of the main issues that have been addressed:
·Cognitive categories interact with and influence each other and this can cause a shift of category prototypes, of boundaries and of the whole category structure.
·Over and above the actual context in which the use of categories is embedded, the internal structure of categories depends on cognitive and cultural models which are always present when language is processed.
·A number of terminological distinctions seem necessary for a differen-tiated view of the context-dependence of categories. Thus we have defined situation as the interaction of objects in the real world;
-context as the cognitive representation of the interaction between cognitive categories (or concepts);
-cognitive model as the sum of the experienced and stored con-texts for a certain field by an individual;
-cultural model as a view of cognitive models highlighting the fact that they are intersubjectively shared by the members of a society or social group.
·'Naive' cultural models, especially those for technical domains, need not be in line with the saentifically accurate knowledge of experts, but may be based on what is communal experience, and strictly speaking even 'wrong' assumptions. Nevertheless these naive cultural models can be shared by most laypersons in a society as long as the functional pre-dictions they make are correct.
Exercises
1.In pragmatics and sociolinguistics the participants of a speech event are often seen as part of the wider 'situational context'. Discuss this notion of 'context' in relation to the one put forward in this chapter.
2.Object categories like CAR are characterized by attributes relating to their form, size, material, parts, functions, and the associations and emotions they call up. Discuss which of these attributes are more likely to change their 'weight' when the context changes, let us say from ordinary traffic to a car race context.
3.Repeat the two-stage test in exercise 5 0f Section l.1 with special contexts like The estate agent climbed out of his . . . (Jaguar, Rolls-Royce, BM W,
Mercedes, etc.) or The children loved to climb the . . . (apple tree, pear tree, cherry tree, etc.) in the orchard given before the association and the good-ness-of-example rating task.
4.Eskimos have many words for different types of snow, Aborigines for different types of sand, and in Arabic one must choose from a whole range of words which are subsumed under the Western category CAMEL(cf. Lyons 1981: 67). Can you explain these phenomena with the help of the notion of 'cultural model'?
5.Compare the cultural model BACHELOR with that of its apparent counter-part SPINSTER. Discuss the parallel examples GENTLEMAN-LADY, MASTER-MISTRESS and BOY-GIRL.
……
语言的奥秘:探索人类心智与意义的桥梁 语言,作为人类独有的沟通工具,承载着我们思想、情感、文化与文明的演进。它不仅仅是词语的堆砌,更是思维的载体,心智活动的映射。当我们凝视语言的深邃内涵时,我们实际上是在窥探人类自身是如何理解世界、如何构建意义、以及如何与他人建立联系的。本书将带领您深入探索语言的本质,从一个全新的视角——认知语言学——来审视我们习以为常的语言现象,揭示语言背后隐藏的深刻的认知机制。 语言的本质:从符号到意义的飞跃 长久以来,语言学主要关注语言的结构、形式和功能,将语言视为一套独立的符号系统。然而,这种视角往往忽略了语言与使用语言的人类心智之间的紧密联系。认知语言学则认为,语言并非孤立存在,而是深深植根于我们普遍的人类认知能力之中。这意味着,理解语言的结构和功能,必须深入探究支撑它们的认知过程。 本书将首先从认知语言学的基本视角出发,阐释为何将语言视为人类认知能力的一部分是至关重要的。我们将讨论,语言的意义并非仅仅由词语的定义决定,而是通过我们与生俱来的概念化能力、感知能力、运动能力以及社会经验共同构建而成。词语的含义,往往与我们对世界的经验性理解紧密相连,例如,“高”这个词的意义,不仅仅是一个简单的定义,而是与我们感知的高度、向上运动的体验,甚至是我们对权力、地位的社会性理解息息相关。 概念的运作:意义如何在大脑中成形 认知语言学的一个核心观点是,语言意义的产生与我们如何组织和处理信息、如何形成概念息息相关。本书将详细介绍认知语言学关于概念形成和运作的理论。我们将探讨,人类是如何通过经验,特别是通过身体的感知和运动体验,来建构抽象概念的。例如,“爱”这个看似抽象的概念,可以通过隐喻的方式与身体的温暖、拥抱等具象体验联系起来。 本书将重点介绍“隐喻”和“转喻”这两种强大的认知机制,它们是如何渗透到我们的日常语言中,塑造我们的理解和表达的。我们将通过大量的实例,展示“时间即空间”(如“时间在流逝”、“漫长的等待”)、“情感即物质”(如“心碎”、“充满希望”)等概念隐喻如何影响我们的思维方式。同时,我们也会分析转喻,例如用“白宫”来指代美国政府,用“笔”来指代作家,这些都是通过部分与整体、容器与内容等认知关联来产生意义的。 语言的结构:意义组织原则下的灵活运用 认知语言学对语言结构的理解,与传统语言学有着显著的不同。本书将强调,语言的结构并非僵化刻板的规则,而是基于意义组织原则的灵活运用。我们不会纠结于繁复的语法规则,而是关注这些规则背后所反映的认知模式。 我们将深入探讨“框架语义学”,它认为词语的意义是镶嵌在特定的概念框架中的。例如,“购买”这个词,会激活一个包含“买方”、“卖方”、“商品”、“价格”等元素的事件框架。当我们听到“约翰购买了这本书”,我们就能自动理解相关的参与者和事件。 此外,本书还将关注“事件结构语法”,它将事件的发生及其参与者之间的关系视为语言结构的基础。我们将分析不同的句式如何通过不同的方式来突出或省略事件的某些方面,从而影响听话者的理解。例如,主动句和被动句在表达事件时,突出的侧重点是不同的。 语言的多样性与普遍性:文化与认知的交织 人类语言展现出惊人的多样性,但认知语言学也指出,在这些多样性之下,存在着深刻的普遍性。本书将探索,语言的多样性是如何受到不同文化背景、不同社会经验的影响,而语言的普遍性则源于我们共享的人类认知基础。 我们将研究,不同语言中存在的“词汇化”差异,即不同语言如何将相同的概念根据其文化需求进行不同的划分和命名。例如,描述颜色的词汇,在不同语言中有不同的数量和区分方式。同时,我们也会探讨,即使语言形式不同,但许多基本的隐喻和概念结构在跨语言和跨文化中是普遍存在的。 语言与心智的交互:语言如何影响我们的思考 “语言塑造思想”——这一观点在认知语言学中得到了深刻的阐释。本书将探讨,我们使用的语言不仅反映了我们的思考,更在潜移默化地影响着我们的思考方式。我们将分析,语言中的词汇选择、句法结构,甚至语气的运用,都会引导我们关注事物的特定方面,形成特定的态度和判断。 例如,使用“入侵”还是“解放”来描述同一事件,会极大影响人们的认知和情感反应。本书将通过一些生动的例子,来展示语言在塑造认知、影响决策,甚至影响社会观念方面的强大力量。 语言的动态性:语言的演变与发展 语言并非一成不变的静止实体,而是一个充满活力的、不断演变的系统。本书将简要介绍认知语言学对于语言演变的看法,认为语言的演变是其认知基础和使用需求共同作用的结果。例如,新的词汇和表达方式的产生,往往是对新概念、新经验的映射。 本书的价值与意义 本书并非仅仅是语言学理论的堆砌,它旨在为读者提供一种全新的、更加深刻的视角来理解语言。通过学习认知语言学,您将能够: 更深刻地理解语言的意义: 摆脱对词语字面意思的依赖,理解意义的动态生成过程。 洞察语言背后的思维模式: 认识到语言是如何反映和塑造我们的思考方式。 提升语言表达能力: 掌握更精准、更富有表现力的语言技巧。 更好地理解文化差异: 认识到语言与文化之间的深刻联系。 激发对人类心智的探索: 将语言学习与对人类认知本质的探索相结合。 本书的目标是让每一位读者都能在阅读过程中,发现语言的无穷魅力,理解语言作为人类心智活动最直接、最丰富的体现。我们希望,通过本书的引导,您能够以一种全新的眼光审视您每天都在使用的语言,并在这个过程中,更深入地认识你自己。