編輯推薦
《認知語言學入門(第2版)》是繼《認知語言學入門》一版而齣。《認知語言學入門》一版於1996年問世,成為當時國內外一本認知語言學教科書。在書中,兩位作者細緻入微地闡釋瞭認知語言學的核心概念,同時,又探討瞭在諸如象似性、詞匯變化、語法化和語言教學等研究中引入認知概念的種種益處。
內容簡介
《認知語言學入門》一版於1996年問世,成為當時國內外一本認知語言學教科書。在書中,兩位作者細緻入微地闡釋瞭認知語言學的核心概念,同時,又探討瞭在諸如象似性、詞匯變化、語法化和語言教學等研究中引入認知概念的種種益處。
此次第二版增加瞭構式語法理論、概念閤成理論、關聯理論等內容,並對原來的內容進行瞭修訂,從而更全麵地反映認知語言學研究近年的新成果,更好地適應不同讀者的需求,是語言學界不可多得的一本內容廣泛的認知語言學教科書。
內頁插圖
目錄
Publishers acknowledgements
Preface to the second edition
Typographical conventions
Introduction
1 Prototypes and categories
1.1 Colours,squares,birds and cups:early empirical research
into lexical categories
1.2 The internal structure of categories:prototypes,attributes,
family resemblances and gestalt
1.3 Context·dependence and cultural models
2 Levels of categorization
2.1 Basic level categories of organisms and concrete objects
2.2 Superordinate and subordinate categories
2.3 Conceptual hierarchies
2.4 Categorization and composite word forms
2.5 Basic level categories and basic experiences:actions,
events,properties,states and locations
3 Conceptual metaphors and metonymies
3.1 Metaphors and metonymies:from figures of speech to
conceptual systems
3.2 Metaphors,metonymies and the structure of emotion
categories
3.3 Metaphors as a way of thinking:examples from science
and politics
3.4 Thinking in metonymies:potential and limitations
4 Figure and ground
4.1 Figure and ground,trajector and landmark:
early research into prepositions
4.2 Figure,ground and two metaphors:a cognitive
explanation of simple clause patterns
4.3 Other types of prominence and cognitive processing
5 Frames and cOnstructions
5.1 Frames and scripts
5.2 Event-frames and the windowing of attention
5.3 Language-specific framing and its use in narrative texts
5.4 Construction Grammar
6 Blending and relevance
6.1 Metaphor,metonymy and conceptual blending
6.2 Conceptual blending in linguistic analysis and description
6.3 Conceptual blending in advertising texts,riddles and iokes
6.4 Relevance:a cognitive·pragmatic phenomenon
7 Other issues in cognitive linguistics
7.1 lconicity
7.2 Lexical change and prototypicality
7.3 Cognitive aspects of grammaticalization
7.4 Effects on foreign language teaching
Conclusion
精彩書摘
For obvious reasons, the discrepancy between the saentifically founded models of experts and the naive models of laypersons is particularly notice-able in scientific and technical domains. Consider for example the case of the naive model of the physical phenomenon of motion. McCloskey (1983) carried out experiments and interviews to elicit the cultural model of motion prevalent in America. He asked his informants to imagine an airplane flying at constant speed and altitude. In addition, the informants should assume that at one point during the journey a large metal ball is dropped from the plane, which continues flying at the same speed and altitude and in the same direction. The task was to draw the path the ball will follow until it hits the ground, ignoring wind and air resistance. Its final position in relation to the plane should also be indicated. Before you read on, you should perhaps try to solve the task yourself, i.e. make your own'drawing of the paths followed by the plane and the metal ball.
Now compare your drawing with the scientifically correct answer to the problem. As physicists tell us, the ball will fall in a kind of parabolic arc and hit the ground directly below the point the plane has reached in the meantime. The ball will take this kind of path because it will continue to travel horizontally at the same speed as the plane while acquiring constantly increasing vertical velocity.
If your drawing does not agree with the scientific explanation, you are in good company, with 60 per cent of the informants, because no more than 40 per cent of McCloskey's informants gave the scientifically correct response. The majority of the subjects thought that the ball would take a different course (for instance that it would drop in a straight line or would fall in a diagonal), revealing a 'naive' cultural model of motion that differs from the expert model current in physics.
What this experiment shows is that the cultural models held by the majority of the people need not be, and often are not, in line with the objectively verifiable, scientific knowledge available to experts. If we consider that cul- tural models are based on the collective experience of a society or social group this does not come as a surprise. To get through everyday life, laypersons do not need scientifically correct models, but functionally effective ones. This means that as long as a model is in line with what we perceive and enables us to make functionally correct predictions, it can have widespread currency although it may be technically inaccurate.
Another illuminating example is provided by Kempton (1987). When she studied the American cultural model of home heat controls or thermostats by means of interviews and behavioural records, she found two competing theories.
One, the feedback theory, holds that the thermostat senses temperature and turns the furnace on and off to maintain an even temperature. The other, which I call the valve theory, holds that the thermostat controls the amount of heat. That is, like a gas burner or a water valve, a higher setting causes a higher rate of flow.
(Kempton 1987: 224)
The feedback theory is technically correct, while the valve theory is wrong. What is of special interest about the two theories is that even though the valve theory is wrong, it also enables us to make the right predictions for the control of temperature in a house and therefore there is no reason why laypersons should not espouse it.
It seems, then, that many naive cultural models, espeaally in the sclen- tific and technological domain, are inaccurate from a scientific point of view, but usually correct as far as their functional predictions are concerned. In other domains of everyday life the question of the accuracy of a model does not seem to be as relevant. For example, for the cultural models of SANDCASTLE, BEACH, DESKS arid BREAKFAST which have been singled out in this section for illustrative purposes, it would not be appropriate to speak of correct or inaccurate models, although experts with particularly refined cognitive models could certainly
be found for all spheres. What counts is that 'ordinary' everyday experiences do not follow the doctrines laid down for scientific research and the rules of
formallogic, but have other, more genuinely cognitive, principles behind them, some of which will be discussed below in Chapters 3 and 4.
To conclude this section, here is a summary of the main issues that have been addressed:
·Cognitive categories interact with and influence each other and this can cause a shift of category prototypes, of boundaries and of the whole category structure.
·Over and above the actual context in which the use of categories is embedded, the internal structure of categories depends on cognitive and cultural models which are always present when language is processed.
·A number of terminological distinctions seem necessary for a differen-tiated view of the context-dependence of categories. Thus we have defined situation as the interaction of objects in the real world;
-context as the cognitive representation of the interaction between cognitive categories (or concepts);
-cognitive model as the sum of the experienced and stored con-texts for a certain field by an individual;
-cultural model as a view of cognitive models highlighting the fact that they are intersubjectively shared by the members of a society or social group.
·'Naive' cultural models, especially those for technical domains, need not be in line with the saentifically accurate knowledge of experts, but may be based on what is communal experience, and strictly speaking even 'wrong' assumptions. Nevertheless these naive cultural models can be shared by most laypersons in a society as long as the functional pre-dictions they make are correct.
Exercises
1.In pragmatics and sociolinguistics the participants of a speech event are often seen as part of the wider 'situational context'. Discuss this notion of 'context' in relation to the one put forward in this chapter.
2.Object categories like CAR are characterized by attributes relating to their form, size, material, parts, functions, and the associations and emotions they call up. Discuss which of these attributes are more likely to change their 'weight' when the context changes, let us say from ordinary traffic to a car race context.
3.Repeat the two-stage test in exercise 5 0f Section l.1 with special contexts like The estate agent climbed out of his . . . (Jaguar, Rolls-Royce, BM W,
Mercedes, etc.) or The children loved to climb the . . . (apple tree, pear tree, cherry tree, etc.) in the orchard given before the association and the good-ness-of-example rating task.
4.Eskimos have many words for different types of snow, Aborigines for different types of sand, and in Arabic one must choose from a whole range of words which are subsumed under the Western category CAMEL(cf. Lyons 1981: 67). Can you explain these phenomena with the help of the notion of 'cultural model'?
5.Compare the cultural model BACHELOR with that of its apparent counter-part SPINSTER. Discuss the parallel examples GENTLEMAN-LADY, MASTER-MISTRESS and BOY-GIRL.
……
語言的奧秘:探索人類心智與意義的橋梁 語言,作為人類獨有的溝通工具,承載著我們思想、情感、文化與文明的演進。它不僅僅是詞語的堆砌,更是思維的載體,心智活動的映射。當我們凝視語言的深邃內涵時,我們實際上是在窺探人類自身是如何理解世界、如何構建意義、以及如何與他人建立聯係的。本書將帶領您深入探索語言的本質,從一個全新的視角——認知語言學——來審視我們習以為常的語言現象,揭示語言背後隱藏的深刻的認知機製。 語言的本質:從符號到意義的飛躍 長久以來,語言學主要關注語言的結構、形式和功能,將語言視為一套獨立的符號係統。然而,這種視角往往忽略瞭語言與使用語言的人類心智之間的緊密聯係。認知語言學則認為,語言並非孤立存在,而是深深植根於我們普遍的人類認知能力之中。這意味著,理解語言的結構和功能,必須深入探究支撐它們的認知過程。 本書將首先從認知語言學的基本視角齣發,闡釋為何將語言視為人類認知能力的一部分是至關重要的。我們將討論,語言的意義並非僅僅由詞語的定義決定,而是通過我們與生俱來的概念化能力、感知能力、運動能力以及社會經驗共同構建而成。詞語的含義,往往與我們對世界的經驗性理解緊密相連,例如,“高”這個詞的意義,不僅僅是一個簡單的定義,而是與我們感知的高度、嚮上運動的體驗,甚至是我們對權力、地位的社會性理解息息相關。 概念的運作:意義如何在大腦中成形 認知語言學的一個核心觀點是,語言意義的産生與我們如何組織和處理信息、如何形成概念息息相關。本書將詳細介紹認知語言學關於概念形成和運作的理論。我們將探討,人類是如何通過經驗,特彆是通過身體的感知和運動體驗,來建構抽象概念的。例如,“愛”這個看似抽象的概念,可以通過隱喻的方式與身體的溫暖、擁抱等具象體驗聯係起來。 本書將重點介紹“隱喻”和“轉喻”這兩種強大的認知機製,它們是如何滲透到我們的日常語言中,塑造我們的理解和錶達的。我們將通過大量的實例,展示“時間即空間”(如“時間在流逝”、“漫長的等待”)、“情感即物質”(如“心碎”、“充滿希望”)等概念隱喻如何影響我們的思維方式。同時,我們也會分析轉喻,例如用“白宮”來指代美國政府,用“筆”來指代作傢,這些都是通過部分與整體、容器與內容等認知關聯來産生意義的。 語言的結構:意義組織原則下的靈活運用 認知語言學對語言結構的理解,與傳統語言學有著顯著的不同。本書將強調,語言的結構並非僵化刻闆的規則,而是基於意義組織原則的靈活運用。我們不會糾結於繁復的語法規則,而是關注這些規則背後所反映的認知模式。 我們將深入探討“框架語義學”,它認為詞語的意義是鑲嵌在特定的概念框架中的。例如,“購買”這個詞,會激活一個包含“買方”、“賣方”、“商品”、“價格”等元素的事件框架。當我們聽到“約翰購買瞭這本書”,我們就能自動理解相關的參與者和事件。 此外,本書還將關注“事件結構語法”,它將事件的發生及其參與者之間的關係視為語言結構的基礎。我們將分析不同的句式如何通過不同的方式來突齣或省略事件的某些方麵,從而影響聽話者的理解。例如,主動句和被動句在錶達事件時,突齣的側重點是不同的。 語言的多樣性與普遍性:文化與認知的交織 人類語言展現齣驚人的多樣性,但認知語言學也指齣,在這些多樣性之下,存在著深刻的普遍性。本書將探索,語言的多樣性是如何受到不同文化背景、不同社會經驗的影響,而語言的普遍性則源於我們共享的人類認知基礎。 我們將研究,不同語言中存在的“詞匯化”差異,即不同語言如何將相同的概念根據其文化需求進行不同的劃分和命名。例如,描述顔色的詞匯,在不同語言中有不同的數量和區分方式。同時,我們也會探討,即使語言形式不同,但許多基本的隱喻和概念結構在跨語言和跨文化中是普遍存在的。 語言與心智的交互:語言如何影響我們的思考 “語言塑造思想”——這一觀點在認知語言學中得到瞭深刻的闡釋。本書將探討,我們使用的語言不僅反映瞭我們的思考,更在潛移默化地影響著我們的思考方式。我們將分析,語言中的詞匯選擇、句法結構,甚至語氣的運用,都會引導我們關注事物的特定方麵,形成特定的態度和判斷。 例如,使用“入侵”還是“解放”來描述同一事件,會極大影響人們的認知和情感反應。本書將通過一些生動的例子,來展示語言在塑造認知、影響決策,甚至影響社會觀念方麵的強大力量。 語言的動態性:語言的演變與發展 語言並非一成不變的靜止實體,而是一個充滿活力的、不斷演變的係統。本書將簡要介紹認知語言學對於語言演變的看法,認為語言的演變是其認知基礎和使用需求共同作用的結果。例如,新的詞匯和錶達方式的産生,往往是對新概念、新經驗的映射。 本書的價值與意義 本書並非僅僅是語言學理論的堆砌,它旨在為讀者提供一種全新的、更加深刻的視角來理解語言。通過學習認知語言學,您將能夠: 更深刻地理解語言的意義: 擺脫對詞語字麵意思的依賴,理解意義的動態生成過程。 洞察語言背後的思維模式: 認識到語言是如何反映和塑造我們的思考方式。 提升語言錶達能力: 掌握更精準、更富有錶現力的語言技巧。 更好地理解文化差異: 認識到語言與文化之間的深刻聯係。 激發對人類心智的探索: 將語言學習與對人類認知本質的探索相結閤。 本書的目標是讓每一位讀者都能在閱讀過程中,發現語言的無窮魅力,理解語言作為人類心智活動最直接、最豐富的體現。我們希望,通過本書的引導,您能夠以一種全新的眼光審視您每天都在使用的語言,並在這個過程中,更深入地認識你自己。